Risk Factors, Etiology and Treatment Modalities for Localized Alveolar Ischemia (The So-called Alveolar Osteitis): A Comprehensive Critical
Keywords:
Alveolar, Ischemia, Osteitis, Treatment, Pathogenesis, Terminology
Abstract
Dry socket is a typically common post-odontectomy complication. Although blood clot disintegration is known to be the cause of the condition due to fibrinolysis, the exact pathogenesis of the clot loss is still poorly understood, and agreement is lacking regarding the relative merits of various treatment methods. The aim of the current review therefore was to perform a comprehensive critical review after qualitatively analyzing a large body of the literature in order to provide the practitioners with a more thorough insight for pathogenicity, risk factors and treatment.In the current review, and in regards with risk factors; age, surgical trauma, smoking, oral contraceptives and poor oral hygiene seemed to be a major risk factors. In the treatment domain, Ozone based therapies were considered the most effective curative treatments followed by curettage. With regard to palliation, the most effective treatments were local anaesthetics, Zinc oxide eugenol after saline irrigation and. Although healers group provided a better healing promotion, but that does not necessitate a relevance with pain relief.To conclude, I hypothesize that ischemia causes the blood clot loss, and I propose renaming the condition "localized alveolar ischemia".DOI:10.21276/AOHDR.1917References
1. Kolokythas A, Olech E, Miloro M. Alveolar Osteitis: A Comprehensive Review of Concepts and Controversies. Int J Dent [Internet]. 2010;2010:1–10. Available from: http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2905714&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract
2. Crawford J. Dry socket. Dent Cosm. 1896;38:929–31.
3. Birn H. Etiology and pathogenesis of fibrinolytic alveolitis(“dry socket”). Int J Oral Surg [Internet]. 1973;2:215–63. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0300978573800456
4. Faizel S, Thomas S, Yuvaraj V, Prabhu S, Tripathi G. Comparision Between Neocone, Alvogyl and Zinc Oxide Eugenol Packing for the Treatment of Dry Socket: A Double Blind Randomised Control Trial. J Maxillofac Oral Surg [Internet]. 2014;14(2):312–20. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26028852
5. Gowda GG, Viswanath D, Kumar M, Umashanker D. Dry Socket (Alveolar Osteitis): Incidence, Pathogenesis, Prevention and Management. J Indian Acad Oral Med Radiol [Internet]. 2013;25(3):196–9. Available from: http://www.jaypeejournals.com/eJournals/ShowText.aspx?ID=6534&Type=FREE&TYP=TOP&IN=_eJournals/images/JPLOGO.gif&IID=493&isPDF=YES
6. Fazakerlev M, Field E. Dry socket: a painful postextraction complication (a review). Dent Updat [Internet]. 1991;18:31–5. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1936428
7. Alexander R. Dental extraction wound management: a case against medicating postextraction sockets. J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 2000;58(5):538–51. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10800910
8. Blum IR. Contemporary views on dry socket (alveolar osteitis): a clinical appraisal of standardization, aetiopathogenesis and management: a critical review. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 2002;31:309–17. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1054/ijom.2002.0263
9. Torres-Lagares D, Serrera-Figallo MA, Romero-Ruíz MM, Infante-Cossío P, García-Calderón M, Gutiérrez-Pérez JL. Update on dry socket: a review of the literature. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal [Internet]. [cited 2018 Jan 21];10(1):81-5-81. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15627911
10. Thoma K. Oral Surgery. 5th editio. Saint Louis, Mo, USA: CV Mosby; 1969.
11. Hindle M, Gibbs A. The incidence of dry socket following the use of an occlusive dressing. J Dent. 1977;5(4):288–293.
12. Fridrich K, Olson R. Alveolar osteitis following surgical removal of mandibular third molars. Anesth Prog. 1990;37(1):32–41.
13. Vezeau PJ. Dental extraction wound management:medicating postextraction sockets. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2000;58(5):531–7.
14. Birn H. Bacteria and fibrinolytic activity in ”dry socket. Acta Odontol Scand. 1970;28(6):773–783.
15. Birn H. Fibrinolytic activity of alveolar bone in ”dry socket. ActaOdontologica Scand. 1972;30(1):23–32.
16. Lucas M, Fretto L, McKee P. The binding of human plasminogen to fibrin and fibrinogen. J Biol Chem. 1983;258(7):4249–4256.
17. MacGregor A. Aetiology of dry socket: a clinical investigation. Br J Oral Surg. 1968;6(1):49–58.
18. Lehner T. Analysis of one hundred cases of dry socket. Dent Pract Dent Rec. 1958;8:275–279.
19. Cohen ME, Simecek JW. Effects of gender-related factors on the incidence of localized alveolar osteitis. Oral Surgery, Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endodontology [Internet]. 1995 Apr 1 [cited 2018 Jan 22];79(4):416–22. Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1079210405801209
20. Larsen P. Alveolar osteitis after surgical removal of impacted mandibular third molars: identification of the patient at risk. Oral SurgeryOralMedicine Oral Pathol. 1992;73(4):393–397.
21. Colby R. The general practitioner’s perspective of the etiology, prevention, and treatment of dry socket. Gen Dent. 1997;45(5):461–472.
22. Krogh HW. Incidence of Dry Socket. J Am Dent Assoc Dent Cosm [Internet]. 1937 Nov 1 [cited 2018 Jan 26];24(11):1829–36. Available from: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S037584513711013X
23. Schow S. Evaluation of postoperative localized osteitis in mandibular third molar surgery. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1974;38(3):352–358.
24. Catellani JE. Review of factors contributing to dry socket through enhanced fibrinolysis. J Oral Surg [Internet]. 1979 Jan [cited 2018 Jan 26];37(1):42–6. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/363986
25. Almeida LE, Pierce S, Klar K, Sherman K. Effects of oral contraceptives on the prevalence of alveolar osteitis after mandibular third molar surgery: a retrospective study. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 2016 Oct 1 [cited 2018 Jan 22];45(10):1299–302. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27312101
26. Lilly G, Osbon D, Rael E, HS S, JC J. Alveolar osteitis associated with mandibular third molar extractions. J Am Dent Assoc. 1974;88(4):802–806.
27. Brekke J, Bresner M, Reitman M. Effect of surgical trauma and polylactate cubes and granules on the incidence of alveolar osteitis in mandibular third molar extraction wounds. J Can Dent Assoc (Tor). 1986;52(4):315–319.
28. Nusair Y, Abu Younis M. Prevalence, clinical picture, and risk factors of dry socket in a Jordanian Dental Teaching Center. J Contemp Dent Pract. 2007;8(3):53–63.
29. Ogunlewe MO, Adeyemo WL, Ladeinde AL TO. Incidence and pattern of presentation of dry socket following non-surgical tooth extraction. Nig Q J Hosp Med. 2007;17:126–30.
30. Jaafar N, Nor G. The prevalence of post-extraction complications in an outpatient dental clinic in Kuala Lumpur Malaysia–a retrospective survey. Singapore Dent J. 2000;23(1):24–28.
31. Amaratunga N, Senaratne C. A clinical study of dry socket in Sri Lanka. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1988;26(5):410–418.
32. Oginni F, Fatusi O, AO A. A clinical evaluation of dry socket in a Nigerian teaching hospital. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2003;61(8):871–876.
33. Sisk AL, Hammer WB, Shelton DW, Joy ED. Complications following removal of impacted third molars: The role of the experience of the surgeon. J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 1986 Nov 1 [cited 2018 Jan 22];44(11):855–9. Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0278239186902211
34. Cohen M, Simecek J. Effects of gender-related factors on the incidence of localized alveolar osteitis. Oral Surgery, Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endodontology. 1995;79(4):416–422.
35. Sweet J, Butler D. Increased incidence of postoperative localized osteitis in mandibular third molar surgery associated with patients using oral contraceptives. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1977;127(5):518– 519.
36. Bienek DR, Filliben JJ. Risk assessment and sensitivity meta-analysis of alveolar osteitis occurrence in oral contraceptive users. J Am Dent Assoc [Internet]. 2016 Jun [cited 2018 Jan 22];147(6):394–404. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27017181
37. Hermesch CB, Hilton TJ, Biesbrock AR, Baker RA, Cain-Hamlin J, McClanahan SF, et al. Perioperative use of 0.12% chlorhexidine gluconate for the prevention of alveolar osteitis: Efficacy and risk factor analysis. Oral Surgery, Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endodontology [Internet]. 1998 Apr 1 [cited 2018 Jan 22];85(4):381–7. Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1079210498900610
38. Catellani JE, Harvey S, Erickson SH, Cherkin D. Effect of Oral Contraceptive Cycle on Dry Socket (Localized Alveolar Osteitis). J Am Dent Assoc [Internet]. 1980 Nov 1 [cited 2018 Jan 22];101(5):777–80. Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002817780150133
39. Hedlin AM, Monkhouse FC. Changes in spontaneous fibrinolytic activity during use of oral contraceptives. Obstet Gynecol [Internet]. 1971 Feb [cited 2018 Jan 26];37(2):225–532. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5539358
40. Ygge J, Brody S, Korsan-Bengtsen K, Nilsson L. Changes in blood coagulation and fibrinolysis in women receiving oral contraceptives. Comparison between treated and untreated women in a longitudinal study. Am J Obstet Gynecol [Internet]. 1969 May 1 [cited 2018 Jan 26];104(1):87–98. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4180662
41. Bortoluzzi MC, Capella DL, Barbieri T, Marchetti S, Dresch CP, Tirello C. Does smoking increase the incidence of postoperative complications in simple exodontia? Int Dent J [Internet]. 2012 Apr 1 [cited 2018 Jan 22];62(2):106–8. Available from: http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1875-595X.2011.00098.x
42. Sweet JB, Butler DP. The relationship of smoking to localized osteitis. J Oral Surg [Internet]. 1979 Oct [cited 2018 Jan 22];37(10):732–5. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/289736
43. Peñarrocha M, Sanchis JM, Sáez U, Gay C, Bagán JV. Oral hygiene and postoperative pain after mandibular third molar surgery. Oral Surgery, Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endodontology [Internet]. 2001 Sep [cited 2018 Jan 22];92(3):260–4. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11552141
44. Rud J. Removal of impacted lower third molars with acute pericoronitis and necrotising gingivitis. Br J Oral Surg [Internet]. 1970 Mar [cited 2018 Jan 22];7(3):153–60. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5272558
45. Krekmanov L. Alveolitis after operative removal of third molars in the mandible. Int J Oral Surg [Internet]. 1981 Jun 1 [cited 2018 Jan 22];10(3):173–9. Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0300978581800518
46. Bloomer C. Alveolar osteitis prevention by immediate placement of medicated packing. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod [Internet]. 2000;90:282–4. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10982947
47. Khalifah MAA. Alvogyl versus zinc oxide eugenol after saline irrigation as a treatment for alveolar osteitis. Int J Dent Res [Internet]. 2018 Jan 21 [cited 2018 Jan 23];6(1):10–2. Available from: https://www.sciencepubco.com/index.php/IJDR/article/view/8766
48. Kaya GŞ, Yapici G, Savaş Z GM. Comparison of Alvogyl, SaliCept patch, and low-level laser therapy in the management of alveolar osteitis. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2011;69:1571–7.
49. Summers L, Matz LR. Extraction wound sockets. Histological changes and paste packs--a trial. Br Dent J [Internet]. 1976 Dec 21 [cited 2018 Jan 24];141(12):377–9. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1070322
50. Syrjänen SM, Syrjänen KJ. Influence of Alvogyl on the healing of extraction wound in man. Int J Oral Surg [Internet]. 1979 Feb [cited 2018 Jan 24];8(1):22–30. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/107131
51. Khalifah MAA. Which is Responsible for Pain Relieve in Alveolar Osteitis Patients: Saline or Zinc Oxide Eugenol? JBR J Interdiscip Med Dent Sci [Internet]. 2017 Dec 21 [cited 2018 Jan 24];5(4):220–3. Available from: https://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/which-is-responsible-for-pain-relieve-in-alveolar-osteitis-patients-saline-or-zinc-oxide-eugenol-2376-032X-1000220-96656.html
52. Noroozi AR, Philbert RF. Modern concepts in understanding and man- agement of the “‘dry socket’” syndrome: comprehensive review of the literature. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Path Oral Radiol Endod [Internet]. 2009;107:30–5. Available from: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/091a/a0e54a6a2fb243b3839a862282e8c567b90c.pdf?_ga=2.24533626.1772767057.1513205441-1020121618.1513205441
53. Burgoyne CC, Giglio JA, Reese SE, Sima AP, Laskin DM. The Efficacy of a Topical Anesthetic Gel in the Relief of Pain Associated With Localized Alveolar Osteitis. J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 2010 Jan [cited 2018 Jan 24];68(1):144–8. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20006169
54. Haghighat A, Bahri Najafi R, Bazvand M, Badrian H, Khalighinejad N, Goroohi H. The Effectiveness of GECB Pastille in Reducing Complications of Dry Socket Syndrome. Int J Dent [Internet]. 2012 Apr 22 [cited 2018 Jan 24];2012:1–4. Available from: http://www.hindawi.com/journals/ijd/2012/587461/
55. Pal US, Singh BP, Verma V. Comparative evaluation of zinc oxide eugenol versus gelatin sponge soaked in plasma rich in growth factor in the treatment of dry socket: An initial study. Contemp Clin Dent [Internet]. 2013 Jan [cited 2018 Jan 24];4(1):37–41. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23853450
56. Haraji A, Lassemi E, Motamedi MH, Alavi M, Adibnejad S. Effect of plasma rich in growth factors on alveolar osteitis. Natl J Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 2012 Jan [cited 2018 Jan 24];3(1):38–41. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23251056
57. Halberstein RA, Abrahmsohn GM. Clinical management and control of alveolalgia ("dry socket") with vitamin C. Am J Dent [Internet]. 2003 Jun [cited 2018 Jan 24];16(3):152–4. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12967066
58. Turner P. A clinical study of “dry socket.” Int J Oral Surg. 1982;11(4):226–31.
59. Ogunlewe MO, Adeyemo WL, Ladeinde AL, Taiwo OA. Incidence and pattern of presentation of dry socket following non-surgical tooth extraction. Nig Q J Hosp Med [Internet]. [cited 2017 Nov 24];17(4):126–30. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18320756
60. Taberner-Vallverdú M, Nazir M, Sánchez-Garcés MÁ, Gay-Escoda C. Efficacy of different methods used for dry socket management: A systematic review. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2015;20(5):e633–9.
61. Neville B, Damm DD, Allen CM, Chi AC. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. 4th ed. Missouri: Elsevier; 2016. 136 p.
62. Holmgren EP, Bagheri SC. Alveolar osteitis (Dry socket). In: Bagheri SC, editor. Clinical Review of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery A Case-Based Approach. 2nd ed. Missouri: Elsevier (Mosby); 2014. p. 126.
63. Hupp JR. Prevention and management of extraction complication. In: Hupp JR, Ellis E, Tucker MR, editors. Text Book of Contemporary Oral and maxillofacial surgery. 6th ed. Missouri: Elsevier (Mosby); 2014. p. 174–87.
64. Khalifah MAA. Surgical Curettage as a Treatment Modality for Alveolar Osteitis: A Wide Controversy. Int J Clin Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 2018 Jan 8 [cited 2018 Jan 23];3(5):26–9. Available from: http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo?journalid=368&paperId=10028033
65. Sechi LA, Lezcano I, Nuñez N, Espim M, Dupre I PA. Antibacterial Activity of Ozonized Sunflower Oil (OLEOZON). J Appl Microbiol. 2001;90(2):279.
66. Viebahn-Hansler R. The use of ozone in medicine. 5th ed. ODREI publisher; 2007.
67. Bocci V. Ozone A new medical drug. 2nd ed. Dordrecht. The Netherlands: Springer; 2011. 168 p.
68. Guanche D. Effect of ozone/oxygen mixture on systemic oxidative stress and organic damage. Toxicol Mech Methods. 2010;20(1):25–30.
69. Putnins EE, Di Giovanni D BA. Dental unit waterline contamination and its possible implications during periodontal surgery. J Periodontol. 2001;72(3):393–400.
70. Khalifah M. A Comparative study for the efficacy of different forms of Ozone as a treatment for alveolar osteitis. Oral Surg. 2018;
71. Mazánek J, Hubálková H, Staňková H, Šmucler R, Linetskiy I, Seidler V JA. Dry Socket aND The Length of Healing Depending on the Type of the Treatment Part Two: Treatment with Ozonated Water. Czech Dent J. 2016;4:s. 96-101.
72. Waseem U. Effect of Age on the Elastic Modulus of Bone. J Bioeng Biomed Sci [Internet]. 2017 Mar 20 [cited 2018 Jan 26];7(1):219. Available from: https://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/effect-of-age-on-the-elastic-modulus-of-bone-2155-9538-1000219.php?aid=86918
73. Manilay Z, Novitskaya E, Sadovnikov E, McKittrick J. A comparative study of young and mature bovine cortical bone. Acta Biomater [Internet]. 2013 Feb [cited 2018 Jan 27];9(2):5280–8. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22939926
74. Brown CU, Yeni YN, Norman TL. Fracture toughness is dependent on bone location--a study of the femoral neck, femoral shaft, and the tibial shaft. J Biomed Mater Res [Internet]. 2000 Mar 5 [cited 2018 Jan 27];49(3):380–9. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10602071
75. Ritchie R, Buehler M, Hansma P. Plasticity and toughness in bone. Phys Today. 2009;62(6):41–7.
2. Crawford J. Dry socket. Dent Cosm. 1896;38:929–31.
3. Birn H. Etiology and pathogenesis of fibrinolytic alveolitis(“dry socket”). Int J Oral Surg [Internet]. 1973;2:215–63. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0300978573800456
4. Faizel S, Thomas S, Yuvaraj V, Prabhu S, Tripathi G. Comparision Between Neocone, Alvogyl and Zinc Oxide Eugenol Packing for the Treatment of Dry Socket: A Double Blind Randomised Control Trial. J Maxillofac Oral Surg [Internet]. 2014;14(2):312–20. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26028852
5. Gowda GG, Viswanath D, Kumar M, Umashanker D. Dry Socket (Alveolar Osteitis): Incidence, Pathogenesis, Prevention and Management. J Indian Acad Oral Med Radiol [Internet]. 2013;25(3):196–9. Available from: http://www.jaypeejournals.com/eJournals/ShowText.aspx?ID=6534&Type=FREE&TYP=TOP&IN=_eJournals/images/JPLOGO.gif&IID=493&isPDF=YES
6. Fazakerlev M, Field E. Dry socket: a painful postextraction complication (a review). Dent Updat [Internet]. 1991;18:31–5. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1936428
7. Alexander R. Dental extraction wound management: a case against medicating postextraction sockets. J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 2000;58(5):538–51. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10800910
8. Blum IR. Contemporary views on dry socket (alveolar osteitis): a clinical appraisal of standardization, aetiopathogenesis and management: a critical review. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 2002;31:309–17. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1054/ijom.2002.0263
9. Torres-Lagares D, Serrera-Figallo MA, Romero-Ruíz MM, Infante-Cossío P, García-Calderón M, Gutiérrez-Pérez JL. Update on dry socket: a review of the literature. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal [Internet]. [cited 2018 Jan 21];10(1):81-5-81. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15627911
10. Thoma K. Oral Surgery. 5th editio. Saint Louis, Mo, USA: CV Mosby; 1969.
11. Hindle M, Gibbs A. The incidence of dry socket following the use of an occlusive dressing. J Dent. 1977;5(4):288–293.
12. Fridrich K, Olson R. Alveolar osteitis following surgical removal of mandibular third molars. Anesth Prog. 1990;37(1):32–41.
13. Vezeau PJ. Dental extraction wound management:medicating postextraction sockets. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2000;58(5):531–7.
14. Birn H. Bacteria and fibrinolytic activity in ”dry socket. Acta Odontol Scand. 1970;28(6):773–783.
15. Birn H. Fibrinolytic activity of alveolar bone in ”dry socket. ActaOdontologica Scand. 1972;30(1):23–32.
16. Lucas M, Fretto L, McKee P. The binding of human plasminogen to fibrin and fibrinogen. J Biol Chem. 1983;258(7):4249–4256.
17. MacGregor A. Aetiology of dry socket: a clinical investigation. Br J Oral Surg. 1968;6(1):49–58.
18. Lehner T. Analysis of one hundred cases of dry socket. Dent Pract Dent Rec. 1958;8:275–279.
19. Cohen ME, Simecek JW. Effects of gender-related factors on the incidence of localized alveolar osteitis. Oral Surgery, Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endodontology [Internet]. 1995 Apr 1 [cited 2018 Jan 22];79(4):416–22. Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1079210405801209
20. Larsen P. Alveolar osteitis after surgical removal of impacted mandibular third molars: identification of the patient at risk. Oral SurgeryOralMedicine Oral Pathol. 1992;73(4):393–397.
21. Colby R. The general practitioner’s perspective of the etiology, prevention, and treatment of dry socket. Gen Dent. 1997;45(5):461–472.
22. Krogh HW. Incidence of Dry Socket. J Am Dent Assoc Dent Cosm [Internet]. 1937 Nov 1 [cited 2018 Jan 26];24(11):1829–36. Available from: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S037584513711013X
23. Schow S. Evaluation of postoperative localized osteitis in mandibular third molar surgery. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1974;38(3):352–358.
24. Catellani JE. Review of factors contributing to dry socket through enhanced fibrinolysis. J Oral Surg [Internet]. 1979 Jan [cited 2018 Jan 26];37(1):42–6. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/363986
25. Almeida LE, Pierce S, Klar K, Sherman K. Effects of oral contraceptives on the prevalence of alveolar osteitis after mandibular third molar surgery: a retrospective study. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 2016 Oct 1 [cited 2018 Jan 22];45(10):1299–302. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27312101
26. Lilly G, Osbon D, Rael E, HS S, JC J. Alveolar osteitis associated with mandibular third molar extractions. J Am Dent Assoc. 1974;88(4):802–806.
27. Brekke J, Bresner M, Reitman M. Effect of surgical trauma and polylactate cubes and granules on the incidence of alveolar osteitis in mandibular third molar extraction wounds. J Can Dent Assoc (Tor). 1986;52(4):315–319.
28. Nusair Y, Abu Younis M. Prevalence, clinical picture, and risk factors of dry socket in a Jordanian Dental Teaching Center. J Contemp Dent Pract. 2007;8(3):53–63.
29. Ogunlewe MO, Adeyemo WL, Ladeinde AL TO. Incidence and pattern of presentation of dry socket following non-surgical tooth extraction. Nig Q J Hosp Med. 2007;17:126–30.
30. Jaafar N, Nor G. The prevalence of post-extraction complications in an outpatient dental clinic in Kuala Lumpur Malaysia–a retrospective survey. Singapore Dent J. 2000;23(1):24–28.
31. Amaratunga N, Senaratne C. A clinical study of dry socket in Sri Lanka. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1988;26(5):410–418.
32. Oginni F, Fatusi O, AO A. A clinical evaluation of dry socket in a Nigerian teaching hospital. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2003;61(8):871–876.
33. Sisk AL, Hammer WB, Shelton DW, Joy ED. Complications following removal of impacted third molars: The role of the experience of the surgeon. J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 1986 Nov 1 [cited 2018 Jan 22];44(11):855–9. Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0278239186902211
34. Cohen M, Simecek J. Effects of gender-related factors on the incidence of localized alveolar osteitis. Oral Surgery, Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endodontology. 1995;79(4):416–422.
35. Sweet J, Butler D. Increased incidence of postoperative localized osteitis in mandibular third molar surgery associated with patients using oral contraceptives. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1977;127(5):518– 519.
36. Bienek DR, Filliben JJ. Risk assessment and sensitivity meta-analysis of alveolar osteitis occurrence in oral contraceptive users. J Am Dent Assoc [Internet]. 2016 Jun [cited 2018 Jan 22];147(6):394–404. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27017181
37. Hermesch CB, Hilton TJ, Biesbrock AR, Baker RA, Cain-Hamlin J, McClanahan SF, et al. Perioperative use of 0.12% chlorhexidine gluconate for the prevention of alveolar osteitis: Efficacy and risk factor analysis. Oral Surgery, Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endodontology [Internet]. 1998 Apr 1 [cited 2018 Jan 22];85(4):381–7. Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1079210498900610
38. Catellani JE, Harvey S, Erickson SH, Cherkin D. Effect of Oral Contraceptive Cycle on Dry Socket (Localized Alveolar Osteitis). J Am Dent Assoc [Internet]. 1980 Nov 1 [cited 2018 Jan 22];101(5):777–80. Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002817780150133
39. Hedlin AM, Monkhouse FC. Changes in spontaneous fibrinolytic activity during use of oral contraceptives. Obstet Gynecol [Internet]. 1971 Feb [cited 2018 Jan 26];37(2):225–532. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5539358
40. Ygge J, Brody S, Korsan-Bengtsen K, Nilsson L. Changes in blood coagulation and fibrinolysis in women receiving oral contraceptives. Comparison between treated and untreated women in a longitudinal study. Am J Obstet Gynecol [Internet]. 1969 May 1 [cited 2018 Jan 26];104(1):87–98. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4180662
41. Bortoluzzi MC, Capella DL, Barbieri T, Marchetti S, Dresch CP, Tirello C. Does smoking increase the incidence of postoperative complications in simple exodontia? Int Dent J [Internet]. 2012 Apr 1 [cited 2018 Jan 22];62(2):106–8. Available from: http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1875-595X.2011.00098.x
42. Sweet JB, Butler DP. The relationship of smoking to localized osteitis. J Oral Surg [Internet]. 1979 Oct [cited 2018 Jan 22];37(10):732–5. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/289736
43. Peñarrocha M, Sanchis JM, Sáez U, Gay C, Bagán JV. Oral hygiene and postoperative pain after mandibular third molar surgery. Oral Surgery, Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endodontology [Internet]. 2001 Sep [cited 2018 Jan 22];92(3):260–4. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11552141
44. Rud J. Removal of impacted lower third molars with acute pericoronitis and necrotising gingivitis. Br J Oral Surg [Internet]. 1970 Mar [cited 2018 Jan 22];7(3):153–60. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5272558
45. Krekmanov L. Alveolitis after operative removal of third molars in the mandible. Int J Oral Surg [Internet]. 1981 Jun 1 [cited 2018 Jan 22];10(3):173–9. Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0300978581800518
46. Bloomer C. Alveolar osteitis prevention by immediate placement of medicated packing. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod [Internet]. 2000;90:282–4. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10982947
47. Khalifah MAA. Alvogyl versus zinc oxide eugenol after saline irrigation as a treatment for alveolar osteitis. Int J Dent Res [Internet]. 2018 Jan 21 [cited 2018 Jan 23];6(1):10–2. Available from: https://www.sciencepubco.com/index.php/IJDR/article/view/8766
48. Kaya GŞ, Yapici G, Savaş Z GM. Comparison of Alvogyl, SaliCept patch, and low-level laser therapy in the management of alveolar osteitis. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2011;69:1571–7.
49. Summers L, Matz LR. Extraction wound sockets. Histological changes and paste packs--a trial. Br Dent J [Internet]. 1976 Dec 21 [cited 2018 Jan 24];141(12):377–9. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1070322
50. Syrjänen SM, Syrjänen KJ. Influence of Alvogyl on the healing of extraction wound in man. Int J Oral Surg [Internet]. 1979 Feb [cited 2018 Jan 24];8(1):22–30. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/107131
51. Khalifah MAA. Which is Responsible for Pain Relieve in Alveolar Osteitis Patients: Saline or Zinc Oxide Eugenol? JBR J Interdiscip Med Dent Sci [Internet]. 2017 Dec 21 [cited 2018 Jan 24];5(4):220–3. Available from: https://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/which-is-responsible-for-pain-relieve-in-alveolar-osteitis-patients-saline-or-zinc-oxide-eugenol-2376-032X-1000220-96656.html
52. Noroozi AR, Philbert RF. Modern concepts in understanding and man- agement of the “‘dry socket’” syndrome: comprehensive review of the literature. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Path Oral Radiol Endod [Internet]. 2009;107:30–5. Available from: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/091a/a0e54a6a2fb243b3839a862282e8c567b90c.pdf?_ga=2.24533626.1772767057.1513205441-1020121618.1513205441
53. Burgoyne CC, Giglio JA, Reese SE, Sima AP, Laskin DM. The Efficacy of a Topical Anesthetic Gel in the Relief of Pain Associated With Localized Alveolar Osteitis. J Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 2010 Jan [cited 2018 Jan 24];68(1):144–8. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20006169
54. Haghighat A, Bahri Najafi R, Bazvand M, Badrian H, Khalighinejad N, Goroohi H. The Effectiveness of GECB Pastille in Reducing Complications of Dry Socket Syndrome. Int J Dent [Internet]. 2012 Apr 22 [cited 2018 Jan 24];2012:1–4. Available from: http://www.hindawi.com/journals/ijd/2012/587461/
55. Pal US, Singh BP, Verma V. Comparative evaluation of zinc oxide eugenol versus gelatin sponge soaked in plasma rich in growth factor in the treatment of dry socket: An initial study. Contemp Clin Dent [Internet]. 2013 Jan [cited 2018 Jan 24];4(1):37–41. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23853450
56. Haraji A, Lassemi E, Motamedi MH, Alavi M, Adibnejad S. Effect of plasma rich in growth factors on alveolar osteitis. Natl J Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 2012 Jan [cited 2018 Jan 24];3(1):38–41. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23251056
57. Halberstein RA, Abrahmsohn GM. Clinical management and control of alveolalgia ("dry socket") with vitamin C. Am J Dent [Internet]. 2003 Jun [cited 2018 Jan 24];16(3):152–4. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12967066
58. Turner P. A clinical study of “dry socket.” Int J Oral Surg. 1982;11(4):226–31.
59. Ogunlewe MO, Adeyemo WL, Ladeinde AL, Taiwo OA. Incidence and pattern of presentation of dry socket following non-surgical tooth extraction. Nig Q J Hosp Med [Internet]. [cited 2017 Nov 24];17(4):126–30. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18320756
60. Taberner-Vallverdú M, Nazir M, Sánchez-Garcés MÁ, Gay-Escoda C. Efficacy of different methods used for dry socket management: A systematic review. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2015;20(5):e633–9.
61. Neville B, Damm DD, Allen CM, Chi AC. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. 4th ed. Missouri: Elsevier; 2016. 136 p.
62. Holmgren EP, Bagheri SC. Alveolar osteitis (Dry socket). In: Bagheri SC, editor. Clinical Review of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery A Case-Based Approach. 2nd ed. Missouri: Elsevier (Mosby); 2014. p. 126.
63. Hupp JR. Prevention and management of extraction complication. In: Hupp JR, Ellis E, Tucker MR, editors. Text Book of Contemporary Oral and maxillofacial surgery. 6th ed. Missouri: Elsevier (Mosby); 2014. p. 174–87.
64. Khalifah MAA. Surgical Curettage as a Treatment Modality for Alveolar Osteitis: A Wide Controversy. Int J Clin Oral Maxillofac Surg [Internet]. 2018 Jan 8 [cited 2018 Jan 23];3(5):26–9. Available from: http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo?journalid=368&paperId=10028033
65. Sechi LA, Lezcano I, Nuñez N, Espim M, Dupre I PA. Antibacterial Activity of Ozonized Sunflower Oil (OLEOZON). J Appl Microbiol. 2001;90(2):279.
66. Viebahn-Hansler R. The use of ozone in medicine. 5th ed. ODREI publisher; 2007.
67. Bocci V. Ozone A new medical drug. 2nd ed. Dordrecht. The Netherlands: Springer; 2011. 168 p.
68. Guanche D. Effect of ozone/oxygen mixture on systemic oxidative stress and organic damage. Toxicol Mech Methods. 2010;20(1):25–30.
69. Putnins EE, Di Giovanni D BA. Dental unit waterline contamination and its possible implications during periodontal surgery. J Periodontol. 2001;72(3):393–400.
70. Khalifah M. A Comparative study for the efficacy of different forms of Ozone as a treatment for alveolar osteitis. Oral Surg. 2018;
71. Mazánek J, Hubálková H, Staňková H, Šmucler R, Linetskiy I, Seidler V JA. Dry Socket aND The Length of Healing Depending on the Type of the Treatment Part Two: Treatment with Ozonated Water. Czech Dent J. 2016;4:s. 96-101.
72. Waseem U. Effect of Age on the Elastic Modulus of Bone. J Bioeng Biomed Sci [Internet]. 2017 Mar 20 [cited 2018 Jan 26];7(1):219. Available from: https://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/effect-of-age-on-the-elastic-modulus-of-bone-2155-9538-1000219.php?aid=86918
73. Manilay Z, Novitskaya E, Sadovnikov E, McKittrick J. A comparative study of young and mature bovine cortical bone. Acta Biomater [Internet]. 2013 Feb [cited 2018 Jan 27];9(2):5280–8. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22939926
74. Brown CU, Yeni YN, Norman TL. Fracture toughness is dependent on bone location--a study of the femoral neck, femoral shaft, and the tibial shaft. J Biomed Mater Res [Internet]. 2000 Mar 5 [cited 2018 Jan 27];49(3):380–9. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10602071
75. Ritchie R, Buehler M, Hansma P. Plasticity and toughness in bone. Phys Today. 2009;62(6):41–7.
Published
2018-03-24
Issue
Section
Review Articles
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
