Fungal Biofilm & Medical Device Associated Infection: It’s Formation, Diagnosis & Future Trends: A Review
Keywords:
Fungal biofilm, Biomedical device, Quorum sensing, IBIS T 5000, Electrochemical sensor,
Abstract
Fungal biofilm has been associated with a wide range of persistent infections, which responds poorly to antifungal drugs. In modern day critical care; use of life saving medical devices encourages biofilm formation. Formation of biofilm on devices and prolonged hospital stay cause resistance of microorganisms to antifungal drugs. Development of resistance is due to genetic and biochemical changes in fungal cells and production of exopolysaccharide matrix. Fungal biofilm is a heterogeneous structure. There are three stages of biofilm formation, such as, microbial adhesion, maturation and disposal of biofilm. Besides, quorum-sensing play an important role in maturation and dispersion of biofilm cells. Biofilm can be detected by culture – based methods, microscopy and genotypic methods. In future, research on innovation of medical devices, newer and early diagnostic methods, new drug molecules, synthetic peptides, electrochemical sensors, atmospheric pressure and non – thermal plasma have scope to deal with biofilm – associated infection.References
1. Donlan RM, Costerton W. Biofilm: survival mechanisms of clinically relevant microbes. Clin Microbiol Rev 2002; 15: 167 – 193.
2. Donlan RM. Biofilm and device associated infections. Emerg Infect Dis 2001; 7 (2): 277 – 281.
3. Chandra J, Kuhn DM, Mukherjee PK, Hoyer LL, McCormick T, Ghannoum MA. Biofilm formation by the fungal pathogen Candida albicans: Development, Architecture and Drug resistance. J Bacteriol 2001; 183: 5385-94.
4. Kojic EM, Darouiche RO. Candida infections of medical devices. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2004; 17: 255 – 267.
5. Adam B, Baillie GS, Douglas LJ. Mixed species biofilms of Candida albicans and Staphylococcus epidermidis. J med microbiol 2002; 51(4): 344-349.
6. Francolini I, Donelli G. Prevention and control of biofilm based medical device related infections. FEMS immunology and medical microbiology 2010; 59(3): 227-238.
7. Bose S, Ghosh AK. Biofilms A Challenge to Medical Science. J Clin Diag Res 2011; 5(1): 127 – 130.
8. Sardi Jde C, Pitangui Nde S, Rodriguez – Arellanes G, Taylor ML, Fusco – Almeida AM, Mendes – Giannini MJ. Highlights in pathogenic fungal biofilms. Rev Iberoam Micol 2014; 31(1): 22 – 29.
9.Hall – Stoodley L, Costerton JW, Stoodley P. Bacterial biofilms: from the natural environment to infectious diseases. Nature reviews. Microbiol 2004; 2(2): 95 – 108.
10. Zhang X, Bishop PL, Kupferle MJ. Measurement of polysaccharides and proteins in biofilm extracellular polymers. Water science and technology 1998; 37 (4): 345 – 348.
11. Costerton JW, Montanaro L, Arciola CR. Biofilm in implant infections: its production and regulation. Int J Artificial organs 2005; 28(11): 1062 – 1068.
12. Sutherland IW. The biofilm matrix – an immobilized but dynamic microbial environment. Trends Microbiol 2001; 9(5): 222 – 227.
13. Dunne WM, Jr and Buckmire FL. Effects of divalent cataions on the synthesis of alginic acid like exopolysaccharide from mucoid Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Microbios 1985; 43(174): 193 – 216.
14. Deretic V, Govan JR, Konyecsni WM, Martin DW. Mucoid Pseudomonas aeruginosa in cystic fibrosis: mutation in the muc loci affects transcription of the algR and algD genes in response to environmental stimuli. Molecular Microbiol 1990; 4(2): 189 – 196.
15. Stapper AP, Narasimhan G, Ohman DE, Barakat J, Hentzer M, Molin S, Kharazmi A, Hoiby N, Mathee K. Alginate production affects Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm development and architecture, but is not essential for biofilm formation. J Med Microbiol 2004; 53(7): 679-690.
16. Lewis K. Persister cells, dormancy and infectious disease. Nature Rev Microbiol 2007; 5(1): 48 – 56.
17. Lewis K. Persister cells. Annual Rev Microbiol 2010; 64: 367 – 372.
18. Carol A, Kumamoto, Marcelo DV. Alternative Candida albicans lifestyles: growth on surfaces. Annul Rev Microbiol 2005; 59: 113 – 133.
19. Suci PA, Tyler BJ. A method for discrimination of sub populations of Candida albicans biofilm cells that exhibit relative levels of phenotypic resistance to Chlorhexidine. J Microbiol Methods 2003; 53: 313-325.
20. Mayor C, Moritz R, Krischner C, Borchard W, Maibaum R, Wingender J, Flemming HC. The role of intermolecular interactions: studies of model systems for bacterial biofilms. Int J Biological Macromolecules 1999; 26(1): 3 – 16.
21. Choong S, Whitfield H. Biofilms and their role in infection in urology. BJU international 2000; 86(8): 935 – 941.
22. Toole GO, Kaplan HB, Kolter R. Biofilm formation as microbial development. Annual Rev Microbiol 2000; 54, 49 – 79.
23. Prasanna SS, Doble M. Medical biofilms – Its formation and prevention using organic molecules. J Ind Inst Sci 2008; 88: 27 -35.
24. Kaplan JB. Biofilm dispersal: mechanisms, clinical implications and potential therapeutic uses. J Dental Res 2010. 89; (3): 205 – 218.
25. Garney K, Neu TR, Horn H. Sloughing and limited substrate conditions trigger filamentous growth in heterotrophic biofilms – Measurements in flow – through tube reactor. Chem Engg Sci 2009; 64(11): 2723 – 2732.
26. Allison DG, Evans DJ, Brown MR, Gilbert P. Possible involvement of the division cycle in dispersal of Escherichia coli from biofilms. J Bacteriol 1990; 172(3); 1667 – 1669.
27. Elenter D, Milferstedt K, Zhang W, Hausner M, Morgenroth E. Influence of detachment on substrate removal and microbial ecology in a heterotrophic/autotrophic biofilm. Water Res 2007; 41(20): 4657 – 4671.
28. Hall – Stoodley L, Stoodley P. Developmental regulation of microbial biofilms. Curr Opinion Biotech 2002; 13(3): 228 – 233.
29. Atkinson S, Williams P. Quorum sensing and social networking in the microbial world. J Royal Society, Interface/ Royal Society 2009; 6(40), 959 – 978.
30. Nowak M, kumatowski P. Biofilm caused by fungi – structure, quorum sensing, morphogenetic changes, and resistance to drugs. Wiad Pyrazytol 2009; 55(1): 19 – 25.
31. Vanden B, Dromer F, Improvisi I, Lozano – Chiu M, Rex JH, Sanglard D. Antifungal drug resistance in pathogenic fungi. Med Mycol 1998; 36 suppl 1: 119 – 128.
32. Andrew PT, Caleb WD, Richard EE, Luis AA. Attachment to the biofilm formation on abiotic surfaces by Acinetobacter baumannii: involvement of a novel chaperon – usher pili assembly system. Microbiol 2003; 149: 3473 – 3484.
33. Marion – Ferey K, Enkiri F, Pasmore M, Husson GP, Vilagines R. Methods for biofilm analysis on silicon tubing of dialysis machines. Artificial organs 2003; 27(7): 1525 – 1594.
34. Singh S, Pandya Y, Patel R, Paliwal M, Wilson A, Trivedi S. surveillance of device associated infections at a teaching hospital of rural Gujarat, India. Ind J Med Microbiol 2010; 28(4): 342 – 347.
35. Sheretz RJ, Raad II, Belani A, Koo Lc, Rand KH, Pickett DL, Straub SA, Fauerbach LL. Three-year experience with sonicated vascular catheter cultures in a clinical microbiology laboratory. J Clin Microbiol 1990; 28: 76 – 82.
36. Siegman- Igra Y, Anglim AM, Shapiro DE, Adal KA, Strain BA, Farr BM. Diagnosis of vascular catheter – related bloodstream infection: a meta analysis. J Clin Microbiol 1997; 35: 928 – 936.
37. Maki DG, Weise CE, Sarafin HW. A semi quantitative culture method for identifying intravenous catheter related infection. New Engl J Med 1977; 296: 1305 – 1309.
38. Mermel LA, Farr BM, Sherertz RJ, Raad II, O’Grady N et al. Guidelines for the management of intravascular catheter – related infections. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 1249 – 1277.
39. Mathur T, Singhal S, Khan S, Upadhya DJ, Fatma T, Rattan A. Detection of three different screening methods of biofilm formation among the clinical isolates of Staphylococci. An evaluation. Ind J Med Microbiol 2006; 24(1): 25 – 29.
40. Bose S, Khodke M, Basak S, Mallick SK. Detection of biofilm producing Staphylococci, need of the hour. J Clin Diag Res 2009; 3: 1995 – 1920.
41. Taj Y, Essa F, Aziz F, Kazmi SU. Study on biofilm forming properties of clinical isolates of Staphylococcus aureus. J Infect Dev Ctries 2012; 5(6): 403 – 440.
42. Zufferey J, Rime B, Francioli P, Bille J. Simple method for rapid diagnosis of catheter associated infection by direct acridine orange staining of catheter tips. J Clin Microbiol 1988; 26: 175 – 177.
43. Schaule G, Griebe T, Flemming HC. Methods for investigation of biofilms, Germany. Available from: :http://www.efcweb.org/efcweb_media/Downloads/EFC+WP10/BR99_02b.pdf [accessed on 30.10.2015].
44. Anderson M, Bollinger D, Hagler A, Hartwell H, Rivers B, Ward K, Steck TR. Viable but non culturable bacteria are present in mouse and human urine specimens J Clin Microbiol 2004; 42(2): 753 – 758.
45. Patrick FB, Rocky ST. New technologies for diagnosing orthopedic infection. Am Acad Ortho Surgeons 2011. Available from: http://www.aaos.org/news/aaosnow/may11/research3.aspwww.aaos.org/news/aaosnow/may11/research3.asp [accessed on 30.10.2015].
46. Birmingham P, Helm JM, Manner PA, Tuan RS. Simulated joint infection assessment by rapid detection of live bacteria with real time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2008; 90: 602 – 608.
47. Embong Z, Wan Hitam WH, Yean C, Rashid N, Kamarudin B, Abidin SK, Osman S, Zainuddin ZF, Ravichandran M. Specific detection of fungal pathogens by 18s rRNA gene PCR in microbial keratitis. BMC Opthalmol 2008; 8:7.
48. Nakamura M, Honda K, Tun J, Ogura Y, Matoba R. Application of in situ PCR to diagnose pneumonia in medico legal autopsy cases. Legal Med 2001; 3(2): 127 – 133.
49. Taksukiko H, Naohiro N, Satoshi T, Akira H, Inamori Y. Direct detection by in situ PCR of the amo A gene in biofilm resulting from a nitrogen removal process. Appl Environ Microbiol 2001; 67(11): 5261 – 5266.
50. Goncalves AB, Isabel MS, Santos IM, Russell R, Paterson M, Nelson L. FISH and staining techniques to detect in situ fungal biofilm in water. Rev Iberoam Micol 2006; 23(3): 194 – 198.
51. Renovoise A, Brossier F, Sougakof W, Jarlier V, Aubrey A. Broad range PCR: past, present and future of bacteriology? Med et Malad Infect 2013. 43(8): 322 – 330.
52. Ecker D, Sampath R, Massire C, Blyn L, Hall TA, Eshoo MW, Hofstadler SA. Ibis T5000: a universal biosensor approach for microbiology. Nat Rev Microbiol 2008; 6(7): 553 – 558.
53. David JE, Jared JD, Jose G, Abel G, James CH, Schink A, Rangarajan S et al. The Ibis T5000 Universal Processor: An automated platform for pathogen identification and strain typing. J Lab Automation 2006; 11(6): 341- 351.
54. Laverty G, Gorman SP, Gilmore BF. Biofilm and implant associated infections. Barnes L and Cooper R, editors. In Biomaterials and Medical Device Associated Infections. Woodhouse publishing 2015. 19 – 46.
55. Otto K, Silhavy T. Discovery of bacterial touch sensor could lead to biofilm treatment. Available from:https://www.princeton.edu/pr/news/02/q1/0205touchsensor.htm#top [Accessed on 05.03.2014].
56. Bellin DL, Sakhtah H, Rosenstein JK, Levin PM, Thimot J. Integrated circuit based electrochemical sensor for spatially resolved detection of redox active metabolites in biofilm. Nat Commune 2014; 5: 3256.
57. Percival SL, Woods E, Nutekpor M, Bowler P, Radford A, Cochrane C. Prevalence of silver resistance in bacteria isolated from diabetic foot ulcers and efficacy of silver – containing wound dressings. Ostomy Wound Manage 2008, 54: 30 – 40.
58. Saleh S, Taha MO, Haddadin RN, Marzooka D, Hodali H. Preparation of silver and zinc doped mulite-based ceramics showing anti bacterial biofilm properties. Molecules 2011; 16: 2862 – 2870.
59. Silver S, Phung LT, Silver G. Silver as biocides in burn and wound dressings and bacterial resistance to silver compounds. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 2006; 33: 627 – 634.
60. Martinez LR, Mihu MR, Tar M, Cordero RJB, Han J, Friedman AJ, Friedman JM, Nosanchuk JD. Demonstration of antibiofilm antifungal efficacy of chitosan against candidial biofilms, using an in vivo central venous catheter model. J Infect Dis 2010; 201(1) 1436 – 1440.
61. Bose S, Ghosh AK. Diagnosis of biofilm associated infection in medical devices. Barnes L and Cooper R, editors. In Biomaterials and Medical Device Associated Infections. Woodhouse publishing 2015. 71 – 82.
62. Mitragotri S, Lahann J. Physical approaches to biomaterial design. Nat Mater 2009; 8:15 – 23.
2. Donlan RM. Biofilm and device associated infections. Emerg Infect Dis 2001; 7 (2): 277 – 281.
3. Chandra J, Kuhn DM, Mukherjee PK, Hoyer LL, McCormick T, Ghannoum MA. Biofilm formation by the fungal pathogen Candida albicans: Development, Architecture and Drug resistance. J Bacteriol 2001; 183: 5385-94.
4. Kojic EM, Darouiche RO. Candida infections of medical devices. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2004; 17: 255 – 267.
5. Adam B, Baillie GS, Douglas LJ. Mixed species biofilms of Candida albicans and Staphylococcus epidermidis. J med microbiol 2002; 51(4): 344-349.
6. Francolini I, Donelli G. Prevention and control of biofilm based medical device related infections. FEMS immunology and medical microbiology 2010; 59(3): 227-238.
7. Bose S, Ghosh AK. Biofilms A Challenge to Medical Science. J Clin Diag Res 2011; 5(1): 127 – 130.
8. Sardi Jde C, Pitangui Nde S, Rodriguez – Arellanes G, Taylor ML, Fusco – Almeida AM, Mendes – Giannini MJ. Highlights in pathogenic fungal biofilms. Rev Iberoam Micol 2014; 31(1): 22 – 29.
9.Hall – Stoodley L, Costerton JW, Stoodley P. Bacterial biofilms: from the natural environment to infectious diseases. Nature reviews. Microbiol 2004; 2(2): 95 – 108.
10. Zhang X, Bishop PL, Kupferle MJ. Measurement of polysaccharides and proteins in biofilm extracellular polymers. Water science and technology 1998; 37 (4): 345 – 348.
11. Costerton JW, Montanaro L, Arciola CR. Biofilm in implant infections: its production and regulation. Int J Artificial organs 2005; 28(11): 1062 – 1068.
12. Sutherland IW. The biofilm matrix – an immobilized but dynamic microbial environment. Trends Microbiol 2001; 9(5): 222 – 227.
13. Dunne WM, Jr and Buckmire FL. Effects of divalent cataions on the synthesis of alginic acid like exopolysaccharide from mucoid Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Microbios 1985; 43(174): 193 – 216.
14. Deretic V, Govan JR, Konyecsni WM, Martin DW. Mucoid Pseudomonas aeruginosa in cystic fibrosis: mutation in the muc loci affects transcription of the algR and algD genes in response to environmental stimuli. Molecular Microbiol 1990; 4(2): 189 – 196.
15. Stapper AP, Narasimhan G, Ohman DE, Barakat J, Hentzer M, Molin S, Kharazmi A, Hoiby N, Mathee K. Alginate production affects Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm development and architecture, but is not essential for biofilm formation. J Med Microbiol 2004; 53(7): 679-690.
16. Lewis K. Persister cells, dormancy and infectious disease. Nature Rev Microbiol 2007; 5(1): 48 – 56.
17. Lewis K. Persister cells. Annual Rev Microbiol 2010; 64: 367 – 372.
18. Carol A, Kumamoto, Marcelo DV. Alternative Candida albicans lifestyles: growth on surfaces. Annul Rev Microbiol 2005; 59: 113 – 133.
19. Suci PA, Tyler BJ. A method for discrimination of sub populations of Candida albicans biofilm cells that exhibit relative levels of phenotypic resistance to Chlorhexidine. J Microbiol Methods 2003; 53: 313-325.
20. Mayor C, Moritz R, Krischner C, Borchard W, Maibaum R, Wingender J, Flemming HC. The role of intermolecular interactions: studies of model systems for bacterial biofilms. Int J Biological Macromolecules 1999; 26(1): 3 – 16.
21. Choong S, Whitfield H. Biofilms and their role in infection in urology. BJU international 2000; 86(8): 935 – 941.
22. Toole GO, Kaplan HB, Kolter R. Biofilm formation as microbial development. Annual Rev Microbiol 2000; 54, 49 – 79.
23. Prasanna SS, Doble M. Medical biofilms – Its formation and prevention using organic molecules. J Ind Inst Sci 2008; 88: 27 -35.
24. Kaplan JB. Biofilm dispersal: mechanisms, clinical implications and potential therapeutic uses. J Dental Res 2010. 89; (3): 205 – 218.
25. Garney K, Neu TR, Horn H. Sloughing and limited substrate conditions trigger filamentous growth in heterotrophic biofilms – Measurements in flow – through tube reactor. Chem Engg Sci 2009; 64(11): 2723 – 2732.
26. Allison DG, Evans DJ, Brown MR, Gilbert P. Possible involvement of the division cycle in dispersal of Escherichia coli from biofilms. J Bacteriol 1990; 172(3); 1667 – 1669.
27. Elenter D, Milferstedt K, Zhang W, Hausner M, Morgenroth E. Influence of detachment on substrate removal and microbial ecology in a heterotrophic/autotrophic biofilm. Water Res 2007; 41(20): 4657 – 4671.
28. Hall – Stoodley L, Stoodley P. Developmental regulation of microbial biofilms. Curr Opinion Biotech 2002; 13(3): 228 – 233.
29. Atkinson S, Williams P. Quorum sensing and social networking in the microbial world. J Royal Society, Interface/ Royal Society 2009; 6(40), 959 – 978.
30. Nowak M, kumatowski P. Biofilm caused by fungi – structure, quorum sensing, morphogenetic changes, and resistance to drugs. Wiad Pyrazytol 2009; 55(1): 19 – 25.
31. Vanden B, Dromer F, Improvisi I, Lozano – Chiu M, Rex JH, Sanglard D. Antifungal drug resistance in pathogenic fungi. Med Mycol 1998; 36 suppl 1: 119 – 128.
32. Andrew PT, Caleb WD, Richard EE, Luis AA. Attachment to the biofilm formation on abiotic surfaces by Acinetobacter baumannii: involvement of a novel chaperon – usher pili assembly system. Microbiol 2003; 149: 3473 – 3484.
33. Marion – Ferey K, Enkiri F, Pasmore M, Husson GP, Vilagines R. Methods for biofilm analysis on silicon tubing of dialysis machines. Artificial organs 2003; 27(7): 1525 – 1594.
34. Singh S, Pandya Y, Patel R, Paliwal M, Wilson A, Trivedi S. surveillance of device associated infections at a teaching hospital of rural Gujarat, India. Ind J Med Microbiol 2010; 28(4): 342 – 347.
35. Sheretz RJ, Raad II, Belani A, Koo Lc, Rand KH, Pickett DL, Straub SA, Fauerbach LL. Three-year experience with sonicated vascular catheter cultures in a clinical microbiology laboratory. J Clin Microbiol 1990; 28: 76 – 82.
36. Siegman- Igra Y, Anglim AM, Shapiro DE, Adal KA, Strain BA, Farr BM. Diagnosis of vascular catheter – related bloodstream infection: a meta analysis. J Clin Microbiol 1997; 35: 928 – 936.
37. Maki DG, Weise CE, Sarafin HW. A semi quantitative culture method for identifying intravenous catheter related infection. New Engl J Med 1977; 296: 1305 – 1309.
38. Mermel LA, Farr BM, Sherertz RJ, Raad II, O’Grady N et al. Guidelines for the management of intravascular catheter – related infections. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 1249 – 1277.
39. Mathur T, Singhal S, Khan S, Upadhya DJ, Fatma T, Rattan A. Detection of three different screening methods of biofilm formation among the clinical isolates of Staphylococci. An evaluation. Ind J Med Microbiol 2006; 24(1): 25 – 29.
40. Bose S, Khodke M, Basak S, Mallick SK. Detection of biofilm producing Staphylococci, need of the hour. J Clin Diag Res 2009; 3: 1995 – 1920.
41. Taj Y, Essa F, Aziz F, Kazmi SU. Study on biofilm forming properties of clinical isolates of Staphylococcus aureus. J Infect Dev Ctries 2012; 5(6): 403 – 440.
42. Zufferey J, Rime B, Francioli P, Bille J. Simple method for rapid diagnosis of catheter associated infection by direct acridine orange staining of catheter tips. J Clin Microbiol 1988; 26: 175 – 177.
43. Schaule G, Griebe T, Flemming HC. Methods for investigation of biofilms, Germany. Available from: :http://www.efcweb.org/efcweb_media/Downloads/EFC+WP10/BR99_02b.pdf [accessed on 30.10.2015].
44. Anderson M, Bollinger D, Hagler A, Hartwell H, Rivers B, Ward K, Steck TR. Viable but non culturable bacteria are present in mouse and human urine specimens J Clin Microbiol 2004; 42(2): 753 – 758.
45. Patrick FB, Rocky ST. New technologies for diagnosing orthopedic infection. Am Acad Ortho Surgeons 2011. Available from: http://www.aaos.org/news/aaosnow/may11/research3.aspwww.aaos.org/news/aaosnow/may11/research3.asp [accessed on 30.10.2015].
46. Birmingham P, Helm JM, Manner PA, Tuan RS. Simulated joint infection assessment by rapid detection of live bacteria with real time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2008; 90: 602 – 608.
47. Embong Z, Wan Hitam WH, Yean C, Rashid N, Kamarudin B, Abidin SK, Osman S, Zainuddin ZF, Ravichandran M. Specific detection of fungal pathogens by 18s rRNA gene PCR in microbial keratitis. BMC Opthalmol 2008; 8:7.
48. Nakamura M, Honda K, Tun J, Ogura Y, Matoba R. Application of in situ PCR to diagnose pneumonia in medico legal autopsy cases. Legal Med 2001; 3(2): 127 – 133.
49. Taksukiko H, Naohiro N, Satoshi T, Akira H, Inamori Y. Direct detection by in situ PCR of the amo A gene in biofilm resulting from a nitrogen removal process. Appl Environ Microbiol 2001; 67(11): 5261 – 5266.
50. Goncalves AB, Isabel MS, Santos IM, Russell R, Paterson M, Nelson L. FISH and staining techniques to detect in situ fungal biofilm in water. Rev Iberoam Micol 2006; 23(3): 194 – 198.
51. Renovoise A, Brossier F, Sougakof W, Jarlier V, Aubrey A. Broad range PCR: past, present and future of bacteriology? Med et Malad Infect 2013. 43(8): 322 – 330.
52. Ecker D, Sampath R, Massire C, Blyn L, Hall TA, Eshoo MW, Hofstadler SA. Ibis T5000: a universal biosensor approach for microbiology. Nat Rev Microbiol 2008; 6(7): 553 – 558.
53. David JE, Jared JD, Jose G, Abel G, James CH, Schink A, Rangarajan S et al. The Ibis T5000 Universal Processor: An automated platform for pathogen identification and strain typing. J Lab Automation 2006; 11(6): 341- 351.
54. Laverty G, Gorman SP, Gilmore BF. Biofilm and implant associated infections. Barnes L and Cooper R, editors. In Biomaterials and Medical Device Associated Infections. Woodhouse publishing 2015. 19 – 46.
55. Otto K, Silhavy T. Discovery of bacterial touch sensor could lead to biofilm treatment. Available from:https://www.princeton.edu/pr/news/02/q1/0205touchsensor.htm#top [Accessed on 05.03.2014].
56. Bellin DL, Sakhtah H, Rosenstein JK, Levin PM, Thimot J. Integrated circuit based electrochemical sensor for spatially resolved detection of redox active metabolites in biofilm. Nat Commune 2014; 5: 3256.
57. Percival SL, Woods E, Nutekpor M, Bowler P, Radford A, Cochrane C. Prevalence of silver resistance in bacteria isolated from diabetic foot ulcers and efficacy of silver – containing wound dressings. Ostomy Wound Manage 2008, 54: 30 – 40.
58. Saleh S, Taha MO, Haddadin RN, Marzooka D, Hodali H. Preparation of silver and zinc doped mulite-based ceramics showing anti bacterial biofilm properties. Molecules 2011; 16: 2862 – 2870.
59. Silver S, Phung LT, Silver G. Silver as biocides in burn and wound dressings and bacterial resistance to silver compounds. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 2006; 33: 627 – 634.
60. Martinez LR, Mihu MR, Tar M, Cordero RJB, Han J, Friedman AJ, Friedman JM, Nosanchuk JD. Demonstration of antibiofilm antifungal efficacy of chitosan against candidial biofilms, using an in vivo central venous catheter model. J Infect Dis 2010; 201(1) 1436 – 1440.
61. Bose S, Ghosh AK. Diagnosis of biofilm associated infection in medical devices. Barnes L and Cooper R, editors. In Biomaterials and Medical Device Associated Infections. Woodhouse publishing 2015. 71 – 82.
62. Mitragotri S, Lahann J. Physical approaches to biomaterial design. Nat Mater 2009; 8:15 – 23.
Published
2016-02-10
Issue
Section
Review Article
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access at http://opcit.eprints.org/oacitation-biblio.html).
